Getting back to the original issue...... "Education" is defined by different people in different ways, but I think we can broadly agree that Education is meant to impart (or may be handover) the next generation with the knowledge that is gained by the existing generation and to mould the next generation to fit into the society while contributing to the society and making it a better place. In much simpler terms, Whatever the ways of living are, each society wants its children to fit into the society of the parents. The children are expected to carry on the values and ideas of their parents. Schools are expected to give children the tools they need to earn a living. That has been the traditional understanding of a good education.
The idea one gets from Upanishads etc. is that, during Vedic period, education was more or less like.... anybody can approach a guru and become his disciple and spend the next 12 years (in general) with the guru... staying with him & learning everything from "growing tomatoes and cultivating paddy" to learning about the "Origin of Universe" This system continued till the later part of the Epic period at which time the peace and prosperity lead to growth of population which started putting pressure on the system which didn't have any clear set of rules. nevertheless the education system continued and teaching was still happening in the guru Kula's. During this time (late epic period and early sutra period) the Varna system was more rigidly enforced and education was deprived to certain sections of the society based on the varna system. exceptions were made all the time to the rich, mighty and powerful. Later sutras were written down more like laws of the religion so that only certain methods can be employed for education and the law was strictly enforced. Here different texts say different things on how untouchability was enforced. and who was actually considered untouchable. Some say all Sudras were untouchables but more texts say that it was the foreigners who were considered untouchables and casteless. But the sudras themselves were clearly meant not to be educated as per Manusmriti. After the manu smriti was compiled in 4th century AD education was limited to Agraharas and was primarily aimed at Brahmins & Khsatriyas. Education of the others was neglected in general by both the kings and the priests. this resulted in a large vacuum which we see even 1600 years later... today
The continuous invasions from almost everyone outside India.... from the Greeks to Huns, Mongols and Arabs created a mixture of people in the west and north India... coupled with the weak education system which sidelined the majority of the people lead to a new system based partially on the Vedas (Atharvana Veda) called Tantrism.
The commoners who were mostly agrarians and worshipped the power of the feminine, which they associated with fertility and birth. Their deity was the goddess, idolized in the form of the yoni (vulva). This existed during the pre vedic times also but the Vedic culture replaced the existing female deities with their male gods--often represented by the phallic lingam symbol. Female deities were then relegated more to being consorts to the male gods.
Sexual intercourse was seen as a way to combine the male and female energies, which were seen as originating from the Cosmos. The manifestation of this duality are the deities Shiva (male) and Shakti (female).
Tantra in Buddhist and Hindu traditions was a method to activate and utilize Kundalini energy (bio-energy) for the expressed purpose of spiritual advancement. The word is a composite of tapestry, web and enlightenment. While some have dubbed Tantra a religion, that is for convenience sake. Tantra in essence defies all the tenants of a religion, while maintaining a spiritual core. And while there are indeed rituals, the rituals are for reference.
It is during this phase under Harshavardhana that Hinduism developed its classical forms of worship which entail devotees bringing their offerings of fruits, sweets and other delicacies to the icons of gods.
The origins and philosophy of the Tantric lifestyle can be traced to Tantric elements in both Hinduism (Laya Yoga) and Buddhism, and predate Taoist philosophy. Buddhist Tantra, and Taoism are outgrowths of the original form of Tantra which began in ancient India. Tantrism and shaktism are one and the same in Hinduism. Many of its practices were deliberately aimed at breaking the caste system, while others flouted convention in lesser ways by using drugs, magic, and sexual intercourse as part of religious ritual.
Stanley Wolpert, in his book "A new history of India" writes, "The orgiastic character of the Tantric ritual - Where group intercourse often occurred at "polluted" cremation grounds and is associated with eating meat and drinking alcoholic beverages - is so antipathetical to brahminic ethics and the norms of other types of Hindu behavior that we can hardly explain the popularity and persistence of such actions as reflecting anything but the most deep rooted aspects of Indian cultural consciousness." Eastern India, possibly Bengal appears to be the regional center from which Tantrism spread through out the subcontinent, transforming Buddhism as well as Hinduism with its form of worship. Today's most female goddesses originated from this movement. Kali and Durga are still the most popular goddesses in the east. Vajrayana Buddhism emerged from here in the seventh century. This was continued in Tibet and Nepal even after the demise of Buddhism in India. In fact this is said to have contributed to the almost non existence of Buddhism in India with the resurgence of Hinduism later.
The vast amount of sexual literature developed during this period was put together by sage Vatsayana in his famous sutras for Kama.The best part of
The best part of Tantrism is the knowledge about the vast untapped "Kundalini Energy" in the human body. The Kundalini power or serpent power is lying like a serpent in a coiled or inactive form at the base of the spine at the "Muladhara Chakra". (The three important nerves of the human body, Sushumna, Ida and Pingala also originate from the same point) As per tantras since this mighty force remains dormant throughout one's lifetime, most people are unaware of its existence. Along with Sushumna there are seven chakras (Psychic centers) in human body and each controls a sense organ's activity.
1. Muladhara Chakra - At the base of the spine - has four petals and controls smell
2. Svadishtana Chakra - at the base of the genitals - has six petals and controls taste
3. Manipura Chakra - Opposite the Navel - has ten petals and controls the sight
4. Anahata Chakra - at the level of the heart - has 12 petals and controls touch
5. Visuddha Chakra - At the medulla oblongata in the throat - has 16 petals and controls hearing
6. Ajna Chakra - Between the eyebrows - has 2 petals and controls the mind
7. Sahasrara Chakra - Located above the top most point of the head - has 1000 petals - here the Yogi attains cosmic consciousness. (Kapala Moksham)
Tantrism of Atharvana Veda also researched into alchemy, Astrology, Astronomy palmistry, cosmology and atomic theory. This Veda is also said to be the basis for Ashoka's secret R&D on Vimana Sashtra. The knowledge that existed during the ancient times in the form of Vedas, Upanishads and Theories of Jnana Yoga especially Vedanta form the basis for majority of the present day sciences. And this is not a xenophobic reaction or RSS inspired statement (Read Father of Quantum Mechanics - Erwin Schrödinger's remarks on Vedanta). let's talk separately on how much research ancient Indian's did into each of these sciences.
During the period after the sutra period (which according to Dr.RK is the scholastic period) commentaries were written on the sutras in order to explain them. Dr.RK says "Not only commentaries were written upon the sutras, but also commentaries upon commentaries, and commentaries upon these almost without limit. The commentaries were primarily explanatory, but also strongly and sometimes grossly polemical. Sometimes the commentaries were more confusing than enlightening. Obscurity of thought, subtlety of logic, and intolerance of opposition are marks of the worst type of commentators." according to him the better types were few and far. Some of the better types according to him were, Sankara (Adi Sankaracharya), Kumarila, Sridhara, Ramanuja, Madhva, Vacaspati, Udayana, Bhaskara, Jayanata and Vijnanabhikshu. These great thinkers have been much more than commentators on the ancient systems. In fact they have created their own systems of thought. In fact the three major forms of Vedanta developed by Sankara, Ramanuja and Madhva are distinct and elaborate systems.
The Vedanta philosophy in one or another form is closely bound up with the religion of India. While Jamini's purva mimamsa deals with the "Karmakanda" duties enjoined by Vedas. Badarayana's uttara mimamsa or the Vedanta (500BC to 200BC) deals with the religious & philosophical speculations of the upanishads. The two together form a systematic account of the contents of the Vedas. It is also called "Brahma Sutra (deals with the doctrine of Brahman), and the "Sariraka sutra"(deals with the embodiment of the unconditioned self). In the 555 sutras an attempt is made to systematize the teachings of the Upanishads. These sutras which consist of two or three words each, cannot be understood without a commentary. According to Dr.RK different commentators develop different interpretations in the light of their own preconceived opinions.
Adi Sankaracharya's Advaita Vedanta (788AD to 820AD) : This is considered philosophy of non-dualism. according to him the "atman" and "brahman" are one and same. He introduced the concept of "Maya & Mithya" and explains the universe in terms of this. He also wrote commentaries on Bhagavad Gita, Upanishads, Vishnu Sahasranama. Two books Upadesasahasri and Viveka choodamani. His Soundarya Lahiri is considered one of his best works. During his time Hinduism lost its appeal mostly because of the onslaught of Buddhism. In order to teach the values of Vedas and Upanishads, he traveled (He is said to have traveled as far north as Kashmir) through out India and established four religious schools in the four corners of the country. These are at Sringeri in Karnataka, in the south; Dwaraka in Gujarat in the west. Puri in Orissa in the east; and Jyotirmath (Joshimath) in Uttaranchal in the north. The heads of the mathas trace their authority back to him. The Sankaramath in Kanchi (TN) is a sakha of the Sringeri Sankaramath. It is said that his philosophy is one of the reasons for the demise of Buddhism in India.
Ramanuja's Vishistadvaita (1050AD) - qualified non-dualism: He fixes his attention on world, self and god. For him all these are real but the world and selves depend on god. Ramanuja believes in the continued individual existence of the released selves. according to him the world, self and god form a unity as matter and selves have existence only as the body of "Brahman"
Madvacharya's Dvaita (1197AD - 1280AD) - Dualism - He holds that god, selves and the world exist permanently, but the later two are subordinate to god and dependent on him. According to him, "brahman or God possesses all perfection and is identified with Vishnu.
Later on the new commentaries were written by Aurobindo Gosh & Radhakrishnan. Present day Swami's (the good ones) continue this tradition in the Sat Sanghs etc.
While there were attempts to put the people back on track with the Vedic system of education, Like Dr.Radhakrishnan says, Indian thought had a serious decline during 17th century (Mughal India) and can be said to have perished during the Macaulay years which continues as of today.
I'll complete this discussion on education with my next post on Macaulay's education system that we follow today...
Books, Links & Resources
Indian Philosophy, Dr.Radhakrishnan
Am I a Hindu - Ed Vishwanathan
Upanishads - Juan Mascaro
The Principal Upanishads - Dr.S.Radhakrishnan
The Upanishads - Eknath Eswaran
Wisdom of the Vedas - JC Chatterji
Arrow of the Blue Skinned God - Jonah Blank
Everybody loves a good drought - P.Sainath
India Facts and Figures - Mohan M Mathew
History of education in India - Jyotsna Kamat
Vedas
http://www.tatvavada.org/audio/
http://sanskrit.gde.to/doc_veda/doc_veda.html
http://swami-krishnananda.org/invoc_0.html
http://www.sanskritweb.de/rigveda/
http://www.hinduwebsite.com/sacredscripts/yajur_veda_intro.htm
http://sanskrit.gde.to/links5_audio.html
http://www.geocities.com/absolut_ism/index.htm
http://www.dhyansanjivani.org/
Upanishads in Sanskrit and English with transliteration
http://www.swami-krishnananda.org
Upanishads
http://www.hindunet.org/upanishads
http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/upan
http://www.san.beck.org/EC7-Vedas.html
http://sanatan.intnet.mu
http://www.geocities.com/neovedanta/index.html
Caste Discussion
http://www.audarya-fellowship.com/showflat/cat/hinduism/5465/13/collapsed/9/o/1
Puranas
http://www.puranas.org/
http://www.urday.com/shastra.htm
http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/Religions/texts/Puranas.html
http://sanskrit.gde.to/doc_upanishhat/upanishadlinks.html
http://www.geocities.com/absolut_ism/naradapurana.htm
Charvaka:
http://www.brainyencyclopedia.com/encyclopedia/c/ca/carvaka.html
http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Charvaka
http://www.hinduwebsite.com/history/athiesm.htm
Ancient Education
http://www.iish.org/administration/discoveries/Ancient_Indian_Number_System_2.htm
http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Indus-Sarasvati%20civilization
http://groups.msn.com/Mythus/worldhistorypart3.msnw
http://www.worldhistory.com/wiki/w/writing.htm
http://www.himalayanacademy.com/Resources/TimeLine/HinduHistory.html
http://www-gap.dcs.st-and.ac.uk/~history/Mathematicians/Panini.html
http://www.atributetohinduism.com/Education_in_Ancient_India.htm
http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/edu/index.htm
http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Indus-Sarasvati%20civilization
http://groups.msn.com/Mythus/worldhistorypart3.msnw
http://www.worldhistory.com/wiki/w/writing.htm
http://www.himalayanacademy.com/Resources/TimeLine/HinduHistory.html
History of Kannada Agraharas
http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/edu/agraharas.htm
Education in Andhra - late 19th century and early 1900s.
http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/edu/andhra1900.htm
Dvaita (Madhvacharya)
http://www.dvaita.org
Contemporary Education:
http://www.ccsindia.org/
http://www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Andhra-Pradesh
http://alochona.org/magazine/2002/april/special4.htm
http://www.india-seminar.com/2004/536/536%20vimala%20ramachandran.htm
http://sathyasaibaba1.tripod.com/summerdis02-1.htm
http://www1.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/331021.cms
http://www.cprindia.org
http://www.cysd.org/
http://shikshanic.nic.in/cd50years/g/U/1A/Toc.htm
http://www.education.nic.in/htmlweb/edusta.htm
http://www.indianchild.com/womens_education_india.htm
http://www.ncw-india.org/
http://www.womenexcel.com/womenstudies/womanstudies.htm
http://gist.ap.nic.in/education/edumain.html
http://www.vidyavrikshah.org/
http://www.celextel.org/
Research on Primary Education in India
http://www.ncl.ac.uk/egwest/tooley.html
Languages and scripts
http://www.ancientscripts.com
http://www.unicode.org/unicode/uni2book/ch09.pdf
http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/scripts.html
http://www.cs.colostate.edu/~malaiya/ashoka.html
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